Ilmiybaza.uz ELEMENTS MAKING UP THE ENGLISH VOCABULARY. LATIN AND GREEK BORROWINGS Discussion Points: 1. Introductory notes 2. The foreign element in the English vocabulary 3. The Celtic element in the English vocabulary Key Words: foreign element, word-stock, borrowing, native stock, loan- words, ordinary English, commonly used, semantic groups. Ilmiybaza.uz The foundation and the framework of the English vocabulary is the native element brought to Britain in the fifth century by the German tribes who eventually overran the Britons. Despite the borrowings already made before the Anglo-Saxons settled in Britain and despite the large scale borrowings of the later periods native words are still at the core of the language. They stand for the fundamental things dealing with everyday objects and things. The native stock includes auxiliary and modal verbs , most verbs of the strong conjugations , pronouns, most numerals, prepositions and conjunctions. The frequency value of these elements in the English vocabulary is not open to doubt. Ordinary English and the vocabulary of colloquial speech embrace fewer loanwords than, say, the language of technical literature. Almost all commonly used English words are Anglo-Saxon in origin. Many studies of English language seems to give undue prominence to the foreign element, thus leaving an incorrect impression of the foundation of the language. The importance of the original word-stock is often overlooked largely because of a multitude of foreign words incorporated in Modern English. Some foreign scholars assumed that the development of English was mainly due to borrowing from foreign sources. It has been customary to subdivide the native element of the English vocabulary into words of the Indo -European stock and those of common German origin. The words having cognates in the vocabularies of different Indo- European languages belong to the oldest layer. Familiar examples of such words are terms of kinship: Father ( O.E.feeder); German- Vater, Greek- pater, Lat. Pater; Brother( O.E. bropor); German- Bruder, Russian- брат, Lat.- frater; Mother ( O.E. modor); German- Mutter, Russian- мать, Lat.- mater, Greek – Daughter (O.E. dohtor); German - Tochter, Russian -дочь; Greek - thygater; Son (O.E. sunu); German - Sohn, Russian - сын; Sanskrit - sunu from su. Ilmiybaza.uz Common Indo-European elements sometimes show considerable differentiation. Such are some names for everyday objects and things, and natural phenomena: fire (О. Е. fyr); German Feuer; Greek pyr. moon (O.E. mono); German - Mond; Greek - mene; night (О. Е. niht); German - Nacht; Russian - ночь; Latin - nox; Sanskrit -nakt; tree (O. E. treo, treow); Russian -дерево ; Greek - drus-oak; Sanskrit dm forest. water (O.E. woeter); German - Wasser; Russian - вода; Greek - hydoe; Latin-unda. In the Indo-European stock we also find such English words as: bull, crew, cat, fish, hare, hound, goose, mouse, wolf. Here belong also quite a number of verbs: to bear, to come, to know, to lie, to mow, to sit, to sow, to stand, to work, to tearl, etc. Adjectives belonging to this part of the vocabulary may be illustrated by such as: hard, light, quick, right, red, slow, raw, thin, white. Most numerals in some Indo-European languages are also of the same origin. Words of the common Germanic stock, i.e. words having their parallels in German, Norwegian, Dutch, Icelandic. This part of the English vocabulary contains a greater number of semantic groups. The following list will illustrate their general character: ankle, breast, bridge, brook, bone, calf, cheek, chicken, coal, hand, heaven, hope, life, meal, shirt, ship, summer, winter and many more. Quite a number of adverbs and pronouns also belong here. It is of interest to note that words of the native stock are characterized by a wide semantic range and grammatical valency. Their high frequency value and developed polysemy are also well known. The native element is mostly monosyllabic. It has been approximately estimated that more than 60% of the English vocabulary are borrowings and about 40% are words native in origin. This is due to specific conditions of the development of English. The vocabulary of any language is particulary responsive to every change in the life of the speaking community, to direct linguistic contacts, political, economic and cultural relationships between nations. Ilmiybaza.uz 2. The Foreign Element in the English Vocabulary The English vocabulary falls into elements of different etymology. A study of loan- words is not only of etymological interest. Words give us valuable information as to the life of the nations concerned. The linguistic evidence drawn from such observation is a very important supplement to our knowledge. Loan- words have justly been called the milestones of philology. The process of borrowing from other languages is due to the more or less direct contact of one nation with another. This is to be regarded as a general linguistic phenomenon. No language is so composite as English; none so varied as to its vocabulary. Strangely enough the Celts, who were the original inhabitants of England, contributed little or nothing to this language save a few names of places. But in the 6th century, the invading Angles, Saxons and Jutes brought over the basic structure of «English» speech, most common words, and for 500 years «English» was almost wholly a Germanic language. Then William the Conqueror sailed across the Channel and, by the Battle of Hastings in 1066, Norman-French was superimposed on the West Germanic dialects. For many generations these two languages ranged side by side, the one being spoken by the Norman overlords, the other by the Saxon vassals and serfs. As a matter of fact, three languages have contributed such extensive shares to the English word-stock as to deserve particular attention. These are: Greek, Latin and French. Together these languages account for so overwhelming a proportion of the borrowed element in the English vocabulary that the rest of it seems much smaller by comparison. Loan-words have come, through travel, commerce, literature and in many other waysj Accurate studies of certain parts of the loan element in English have not yet been made. To discuss this subject with even an approach to com pleteness would fill a whole volume. By tracing the origin of loan-words and analysing the ways by which they penetrated into the English language we can throw some light on the relations Ilmiybaza.uz between England and other countries. Even the barest enumeration of the successive periods of borrowings will remind us of the history of the English people. The influence of a foreign language may be exerted in two ways, through the spoken word, by personal contact between the two peoples, or through the written word, by indirect contact not between the peoples themselves but through their literatures. The former way was more productive in the earlier stages, and the latter has become increasingly important in more recent times. It comes quite natural that words borrowed in a purely oral manner, as compared to literary or bookish borrowings, have been quite successfully assimilated to the English language and are often hardly recognizable as foreign in origin. A consideration of the foreign element in language is not easy. A complete discussion of the borrowed element in Modern English is hardly possible because of the lack of accurate studies of the loan material, although some ideas of its character, as well as of the time of its introduction, may be given with sufficient accuracy for general purposes. In our study of the foreign element we shall leave out of account entirely words occurring in Old and Middle English but lost to the modern speech. There are various degrees of «foreignness» (H. Marchand). Words may appear as complete aliens borrowed from a foreign language without any change of the foreign sound and spell ing. These words are immediately recognizable as foreign words. They retain their sound-form, graphic peculiarities and grammatical characteristics and seem not to have broken their ties with the parent language completely. Take such French borrowings as: ballet, bouquet, carte blanche, chauffeur, coquette, coup d'etat, debris, finesse, phenomenon-phenomena, ragout, resume, regime, role, trait, table d'hote, vis-a-vis, etc. Certain foreign words are not felt to be aliens. They are completely or partially assimilated with already existing native words and sometimes become indistinguishable from the native element. Ilmiybaza.uz Perfectly naturalized in usage they have been accommodated to the English language by the substitution of English sounds for the unusual foreign ones. Such are, for instance, many Scandinavian borrowings: call, die, husband, fellow, kill, law, loose, low, meel, skirt, skin, sky, etc. Naturalization of French borrowings is well known. A few examples will suffice for illustration: river—(Fr. riviere) mountain — (Fr. montaigne, Lat. mons, mentis) flower — (Fr. fleur) chain — (Fr. chaine) A foreign word may be combined with a native affix, e. g. troublesome (trouble — French by origin + the English suffix some); companionship (companion — French by origin-j-+ the English suffix ship); faultless (fault — French by origin + the English suffix less); uncertain (the English prefix un + certain — French by origin); unconversable (the English prefix un •+• conversable — French by origin). Relative borrowings or words that have somewhat changed their outer aspect and got rather far in sense from what they used to be in their native sphere, e. g. travel comes from the French travailter—to «toil». The influence of one language upon another also makes itself felt in the so-called translation-loans, e. g.: English: by heart; local colouring; knight errant French: par Coeur; couleur; locale; chevalier errant. English: mother tongue; a slip of the tongue Latin: lingua maternal; lapsus linguae. Most of the given words are international in character. Other examples are: Procrustean bed — прокрустово ложе. (After a legendary highwayman of Attica who tied his victims upon an iron bed and stretched or cut off their legs to adapt them to its length. He was slain by The- seus). Sword of Damocles—Дамоклов меч. (A flatterer whom Dionysius of Syracuse rebuked for his constant praises of the happiness of kings by seating him at a royal banquet beneath a sword hung by a single hair). Sisyphean labour — Сизифова работа. Ilmiybaza.uz (A crafty and avaricious king of Corinth condemned in Hades to roll up a hill a huge stone, which constantly rolled back). Heel of Achilles — Ахиллесова пята. (The hero of Homer's Iliad who became the Greek ideal of youthful strength, beauty and valour. He was fatally wounded by Paris's arrow, which pierced his heel, where alone he was vulnerable). Translation-loans are not less characteristic in phraseology: English French It goes without saying Cela va sans dire with lost body a corps perdu with sure stroke a coup sur in mass, in a body en masse at any cost coute que coute better late than never mieux vaut tard que jamais fall ill tomber malade fine feathers make fine birds make believe not at all reason for being to a good cat, a good rat la belle plume fait le bel oiseau faire croire pas du tout raison d'etre a bon chat, bon rat. Latin aut Caesar aut nihil ad Kalendas Graecas nulli secundus quot homines, tot sententia est modus in rebus Ilmiybaza.uz cum grano sal is Engl ish - either Caesar or nothing - on the Greek Calends second to none - so many men, so many minds -there is a medium in all things - to take something with a grain of salt. Phrases from foreign sources (barbarisms) are not often fully acclimatized. They are almost always used as aliens printed in italics, or in inverted commas; such are many French phrases, e. g.: a propos - in connection with; bon mot - a witty saying; de trop - too much or too many, superfluous; en regie - by rule; entre nous - between ourselves; en route - on or along the way; facon de parler - way of speaking; fin do siecle - end of the century; nature morte - still-life; mon cher - my dear; vis-a-vis - face to face; faux pas - a false step, a slip in behaviour; laisser faire - non-interference; mal-a-propos - ill-timed, out of place; par exemple - for example; savoir faire - the knowing how to act. Here are some examples of Latin and Greek words and stockphrases which occur in Modern English with a good deal of frequency. Most of them have won a permanent place for themselves not only in English usage but in other languages as well. English: - presumptive, without examination - for this case alone - to infinity - at pleasure - in point of fact - from the law - from the chair, with high authority] Ilmiybaza.uz - in virtue of office - hasten slowly - in the matter of - a rare bird, paragon - of its own peculiar kind - let everyone have his own - an indispensable thing or condition - an unknown country - unwilling or willing - from the beginning - touch-me-not - unsurpassed - horrible to relate Latin: Apriori ad hoc ad infinitum ad libitum de facto de jure ex cathedra ex officio festina lente in re rara avis sui generic suurn cuique sine qua non terra incognita volens nolens ab initio noli me tangere nee plus ultra horribile dictu Greek - eureka, i.e. I have found it (the exclamation attributed to Archimedes upon discovering a method of determining the purity of gold and now expressing triumph over a discovery). Among the other points of interest presented by the foreign element in the English language mention should be made of the so-called descriptive translation which can Ilmiybaza.uz be exemplified by such combinations of words as: lay judge (заседатель), thick ring- shaped roll (— boublik — бублик). Semantic borrowings The linguistic evidence drawn from the character of loan-words shows that due to the influence of one language upon another words may undergo different semantic changes. The English word dream, for instance, which originally meant joy, music, has taken its modern signification from the Norse. The word bloom (A. S. bloma — lump) which originally meant metal, a mass of wrought iron from the forge or puddling furnace, has taken its modern sense from the Norse blom, blomi—a blossom, flower of a seed plant;— chiefly collectively, the flowering state; as, roses in bloom. The modern verb dwell originally meant блуждать; its modern signification has been taken from the Scandinavian dvelja — жить. Semantic borrowings are comparatively more frequent in nouns. The noun gift in Old English meant выкуп за супругу and then through implied association— веселье, свадьба; under the influence of the Norse it has come to mean подарок. The modern meanings of such words as bread (Old English— slice of bread), holm (Old English — ocean, sea), plough (Old English — measure of the ground) have also been taken from the Norse. 3. The Celtic Element in the English Vocabulary During the Anglo-Saxon period the English language came into contact with three other tongues which to some extent affected the vocabulary. These were, first, the speech of the Native Celtic inhabitants; secondly, the Latin, and thirdly, the Norse. Of these Latin was the only one which at that time added any appreciable number of words to the language of literature. The principal contact between English and Celtic speech was established by the English settlement of the British Isles. Older books on English philology contain a long list of words supposed to be derived from the Celts. Ilmiybaza.uz Modern investigation, however, has shown that the number of Celtic words in the English vocabulary apart from numerous place names before the 12th century is not very considerable. Examples of Celtic loan-words appearing in Old English and preserved until the present time are: down (hill), dun (colour), bin (a chest for corn). The words bard, brogue, claymore, plaid, shamrock, whisky, for illustration, are all of Celtic origin, but none of them existed in the English of the Anglo-Saxon period. The influence of the Celtic upon English may be traced in names of places. This is natural, since place names are commonly adopted in great numbers from the aboriginal inhabitants of a country. Celtic names are common in all parts of England though much more largely in the north and west and especially in Scotland and Ireland. Skeat registers 165 words borrowed directly or indirectly from the Celts, including in this number words of uncertain origin supposed to be derived from the Celtic. Here are a few words Celtic in origin which have acquired international currency: budget, career, clan, flannel, mackintosh, plaid, and tunnel. The Classical Element In The English Vocabulary Latin 1. The Classical Element in the English Vocabulary The value of knowledge of the classical element in the English vocabulary makes itself quite evident. It helps us not only to learn and remember the meaning of a very large number of English words , but to discover shades of meaning that must always remain hidden from anyone who is ignorant of Latin. The Latin influence on English as on other Germanic languages begins so early and is of such continuous nature that it merits separate treatment. It is at first the influence of a living language, dating from old times; it persists as the influence of a dead language down to the present day . In modern times Latin has been adopted for scientific nomenclature. A Latin nomenclature has the special advantage of being understood by scientists all over the world, so the Latin has become a sort of common name-language for science. Ilmiybaza.uz Few of such words have any place in the speech of common people, and those that have gained a foothold have been adopted from the language of the learned. It is impossible to estimate, far less enumerate, these later Latin words with absolute accuracy. Some idea of their character may be gained from the list in the appendix to Skeafs Etymological Dictionary. Above all the New English Dictionary has been constantly and unfailingly helpful. Some idea of the Latin element may also be gained from the large number of words in English with Latin prefixes and suffixes; yet some of the latter also appear in Romance words. . Early Latin loans The Germanic tribes, of which the Angles and Saxons formed part, had been in contact with Roman civilization and had adopted several Latin words denoting object belonging to that civilization long before the invasion of Angles, Saxons and Jutes into Britain. These words are typical of the early Roman commercial penetration . To this No subsequent single influence on English has been equal in its effect to that of the Norman Conquest which, as is known, began in 1066. Loan-words adopted through the conquest of England by the Norman French and the subsequent intercourse between the two nations extending through the whole Middle English period are, no doubt, most important foreign adoptions in the English vocabulary. In books devoted to teaching English it has been customary to consider the French element as but one division of Latin borrowings , which seems justified in the strictest etymological sense. But which respect to English, French surely deserves a separate treatment because of the great number of such adoptions arid the various times at which they have entered. The influence of Modern French on English has been by no means inconsiderable, so that on this account it also deserves separate study from Latin and other Romanic elements. Ilmiybaza.uz period belongs the introduction of wine, the Latin name for which vinum survives not only in the English wine but also in the German Wein and the Scandinavian vin. Another Latin word connected with trade was mango; it survives in the English monger, which has now become a component part of such compound words, as: fishmonger, ironmonger, ironmongery, costermonger, warmonger. Among the words of early loans from Latin are also such as: English Latin Ass asinus colony colonia mule muius cook coquus mill molinum cup cuppa pepper piper pear pirum (pira) kettle catillus chest cista dish discus mile mille pea pisum plum prunus street (a paved road) (via) strata beet beta wall vallum To this period English owes geographical names ending in Chester, as Manchester, Gloucester, Lancaster (from Latin cast rum — a fortified camp). In analysing the early Latin loans we see their specific character. This first and smallest instalment came through the military occupation of Britain by the Romans, during the four centuries which preceded the invasion of Angles, Saxons and Frisians. It is hardly necessary to say that such loan-words were learnt in a purely Ilmiybaza.uz oral manner. This is a distinctive feature of the oldest Latin loans as opposed to later borrowings. 1.2. Later loans The second instalment of Latin words came to Britain in the seventh century, when the people of England were converted to Christianity. To this period belong such words, as: altar, chapter, candle, creed, cross, feast, disciple, and a great many more. Quite a number of such ecclesiastical words have gained a more popular use and now belong to the common language. To this period the English language owes the names of many articles of foreign production the use of which was brought into England by the Romans, as for instance: marble, chalk, linen, etc. Among Latin loans of the second period we also find such words, as: elephant, tun, laurel, lily, fiddle, palm, pearl, pine, and many others. Thus since Old English times there has been a gradual but constant adoption of Latin words. This indulgence is partly due to two great historical events: the Norman Conquest in 1066 and the Revival of Learning, the Renaissance. The influence of the Norman Conquest upon the English language is often called the Latin of the third period. In addition to the great stock of Latin words that have j entered English through French, or under its influence, there are a great many words taken directly from Latin without change, e. g. erratum, animal, antenna, genius, fungus, stimulus, omnibus, nucleus, radius, datum, formula, index, radix, series, species, alibi, item, dictum, maximum, minimum, superior, anterior, posterior, prior, inferior, senior, junior, etc. The latest stratum of loans from Latin (the fourth period) embraces abstract and scientific words (verbs especially adopted exclusively through the medium of writing). Ilmiybaza.uz To this stratum of Latin loans belongs the main part of the international element of the English vocabulary. As we have seen, for centuries the Latin vocabulary served as a mine, from which great numbers of English words were derived. The English had made such regular use of Latin words (modified in form) that they seem like native words today. A great many Latin abbreviations usually suggest English equivalents, for instance: e. g. (exempli gratia) — for example i. e. (id est) — that is to say a. m. (ante meridiem) — before noon L. s. d. (librae, solidi, dinarii) — pounds, shillings and pence v. v. (vice versa) — the opposite viz. (videlicet) — that is to say; in other words etc. (et cetera) — and so on cf. (confer) — compare et seq., et sqq. (et sequentia) —and the following id (em) — the same ib., ibid., ibidem —in the same place p. a., per a. (per annum) — yearly pet. (per centum) — per cent op. cit. (opus citatum) — a work cited per pro (curationem) — by proxy, by attorney q. 1. (quantum libet) — as much as you like s. f. (sub finem) — by the end GREEK A great many Greek words introduced into English came in chiefly through the medium of Latin, for the Latin language itself was largely indebted to Greek. Borrowings from Greek like those from Latin go back to an early period. But the influx of Greek words on a large scale did not begin until the time of the Revival of Learning. These are mostly bookish borrowings. How pervasive is the Greek element, direct or indirect, in the Modern English vocabulary may best be illustrated by observing how in a single branch of art or science words of this type tend to accumulate. It is interesting to note that modern scientific and technical terms of Greek origin are nearly all of international currency. Greek terms added much to the precision of scientific terminology. Ilmiybaza.uz In natural sciences the preponderence of Greek words is striking. It is perhaps sufficient to mention merely the names of such fields as bacteriology, botany, histology, physiology, physics and zoology in order to suggest how the Greek language has permeated their various specialized vocabularies. The effect is quite as striking in fields of science that have been recently developed. Here are a few of the hundreds of Greek terms used in modern medicine: adenoids, pediatrics, psychiatry, psychoanalysis. Greek borrowings were more or less latinized in form. They are spelt and pronounced not as in Greek but as the Romans spelt and pronounced them. When, for instance, after the Roman time the Latin с changed its pronunciation before e, i, у (к) — the pronunciation of many Greek words was changed. Thus we got a word like the modern cycle which is very unlike the Greek kyklos – circle. Among numerous Greek borrowings in the English vocabulary we find the following: analysis, botany, comedy, chorus, democrat, democracy, dialogue, epilogue, episode, eros, elegy ,gymnastics, ode, physics, philology, philosophy, problem,prologue, rhythm scheme, scene, tragedy, etc. Quite a number of proper names are also Greek in origin, e. g. George, Eugene, Helene, Sophie, Peter, Nicholas, Theodor and still others. So much of Greek has come through Latin that it is often hard to give credit to the proper source. We may easily find Greek words in the more modern terminology of the fields of general science, of medicine, and in the technical terms of language study. Here are some loan-words which linguistics owes to Greek: antonym, archaism, dialect, etymology, euphemism, homonym, homophone, hyperbole, idiom, lexicology, metaphor, metonymy, neologism, polysemy, synecdoche, synonym, etc. A lot of English terms in rhetoric and grammar were originated in Greece. The punctuation mark called a comma originates from the Greek word komma, which meant «a piece cut off and then «the mark that sets off a phrase». Ilmiybaza.uz The word colon is from kolon — «a limb or joint», and hence that piece of a sentence called a clause, then the colon mark to indicate the division of the clause. The word period was originally periodus—»a going around», «a cycle», as of years. By the end of the 16th century it meant the point of completion of any action, then a full sentence or the pause following one, and finally the dot that marks the end of a sentence. There are numerous English compounds coined from such Greek roots, as: autos — self, chroma — colour, ge — earth, graphein — write, logos — discourse, phone — voice, kratos — power, strength, skopein — to see, telos — at a distance, e. g.: autograph, autocrat, chroinatology, geography, geology, phonograph, photochromy, telegraph, telephone, telescope. It has been customary to call such newly formed words Greek, but this is, of course, very relative, for many of them were coined neither in Greek nor in Latin, but created in other languages from Greek or Latin roots. New derivatives of this kind may be traced in most modern European languages. Take such words in Russian and Ukrainian as: локомотив, автомобиль. The word локомотив, for instance, has been derived from two Latin elements: locus — место + motus — движение; the word автомобиль consists of Greek and Latin roots: Gr. autos — сам; Lat. mobilis — движимый, etc. The Scandinavian Element in the English Vocabulary The Danish invasion resulted in the occupation of a great part of the country. In 878 the English King Alfred the Great was obliged to recognize the Danish rule over the territory covering two thirds of modern England. The effect of the Danish conquest was a contribution of many Scandinavian words to the English vocabulary. Scandinavian words were borrowed most freely between the 9th and 12th century. It is supposed that the Scandinavian element in Modern English amounts to 650 root- words. Ilmiybaza.uz The extent of Scandinavian influence upon the English language is not s easy to ascertain. There is special difficulty in the question of etymology as regards Scandinavian words. This is due to the fact that there was great similarity between the languages of the English and Scandinavian. In distinguishing Scandinavian words we may often apply the criterion of sound. Thus, for instance, many words with the К sound before e and i and numerous Germanic words in English with the sk sound are to be assigned to Scandinavian origin. (In native English words the sk sound had regularly changed to sh and the k sound before the vowels e and had changed to ch). A number of Old English words have been assimilated to the kindred Scandinavian synonyms in form, e. g. sister comes from 0. N. syster (not from the Old English sweo-ster). Scandinavian borrowings are numerous in geographical place names in Northern England, such as: Braithwaite, Whitby, etc. The Scandinavian loan-words are practical everyday words, such as: Nouns: anger, bull, by-law, calf, cake, crop, egg, fellow, gate, guest, kid, keel, knife, keg, root, score, skull, sky, skin, skirt, sister, thrall, window, wing. Adjectives: flat, ill, low, loose, meak, odd, rotten, scant, ugly, wrong, etc. Verbs: bask, cast, call, crave, drown, die, droop, gape, guess, thrust, get, give, raise, scream, scrape, seem, scowl, scare, scrub, take, thrive, want, etc. The pronoun same and the pronominal forms with initial the — they, their and them — are due to Scandinavian influence. This is the one case in which English has adopted pronouns from another language. The borrowing of pronouns proves most clearly the close interrelation of the Anglo- Saxon and Danish elements in early English. A number of Scandinavian law-terms entered Old English, but after the Norman Conquest when the conquerors took the courts of justice into their own hands, they disappeared (except, probably, such as: law, by-law, thrall and crave). Ilmiybaza.uz The same is true of Scandinavian words relating to naval warfare. Old English words dead and death had the corresponding verbs steorfan and sweltan. It comes quite natural that the Scandinavian deya was more easily associated with the noun and adjective than were the old verbs and it was soon adopted in the form deyen (M.E. — to die). The Old English sweltan grew out of use completely, while steorfan has come to mean — starve. To swelter means to be faint from heat, to perspire profusely, to sweat — изнемогать. It will be remembered that most of Scandinavian borrowings belong to the fundamental stock of words. Scandinavian elements survive in such hybrid compounds as: lawful, lawless, greyhound.