GERMAN AND DUTCH ELEMENT IN THE ENGLISH VOCABULARY Many borrowings came from Germany such, for instance, as several names of metals and minerals: bismuth, cobalt, quarz, zinc, nickel, feldspar, gneiss, shale. There is also a group of miscellaneous words borrowed directly or indirectly. Among them are: waltz, fatherland, kindergarten, leitmotif, rinderpest, rucksack, carouse. German: Gar aus — quite out, that is empty the glass), swindler, schnaps, sauerkraut, kapellmeister, plunder, poodle. The influence of German on the ordinary vocabulary of English is not very considerable. The total number of German borrowings is about 1500 words. The majority of borrowings are in the sphere of terminology (75 %). The process of borrowing from German began in the XVI century in connection with the establishment of cultural and economic ties between England and Germany. The level of economic development of the two countries was rather high and German borrowings penetrated into the spheres where the contacts were close. From the sphere of geology, mineralogy, mining industry came about 280 words: “bismuth”, “calcite”, “cobalt”, “field-spat”, “limonite”, “magnetite”, “ozocerite”, “zink”, “nickel”, “wolfram”, “quarz”, etc. In the sphere of biology we deal with the following German borrowings: “anlage”, “biology”, “crowberry”, “cyclotomy”, “dahlia”, “kohlrabi”, “plankton”, “voller”, “zinnia”, etc. (about 120 words). The sphere of chemistry the vocabulary was enriched by: “alkaloid”, “aspirin”, “caesium”, “polymer”, “saccaharine”, “titanium”, “uranium”, etc. About 40 words were borrowed from the sphere of physics, mathematics, astronomy: “eigenvalue”, “eigenstate”, “function”, “infinitesimal”, “monad”, “satellite”. Only 40% are fully assimilated words: “bower”, “dollar”, “halt”, “lard”, etc. Partially assimilated words constitute 60% of the total number of German borrowings. Loan words from German taken from the sphere of everyday life are not numerous: “sauerkraut”, “lagerbeer”, “vermouth”, “schnaps”, “poodle”, “kirsch”, “kummel”, “marzipan”, “carouse”, “waltz”, “swindler”, “lobby”, “vaneer”, “iceberg”, “kindergarten”, “rucksack”. German borrowings are practically devoid of synonyms and are not characterized by changes in their semantic structure (exceptions are very few: German “Fraulein” - an unmarried woman develops in English into “Fraulein” - a governess of German origin); here we deal with specialization of meaning. 16% of borrowings from German are involved into derivation through affixation (-ism, -ish, -lc, -lee, -ly), 2% are capable of conversion (“to plunder”- “plunder”, “blitz” – “to blitz”). Though the number of German borrowings can’t be compared with borrowings of Romanic origin, the influence of German is obvious in the XIX-XX centuries and the fact should not be overlooked. A great number of German borrowings are words denoting social, political, and philosophic concepts: “objective”, “subjective”, “determinism”, “intuition”, “transcendental”, “constant value”, “class struggle”, “world-view-determinism”, “idea”, “form”, “obscurant”, “dialectics”, etc. During the Second World War German loan-words characterizing the fascist regime, the army and the new social “order” of the country entered the English vocabulary: “wehrmaht”, “blitzkrieg”, “luftwaffe”, “fau”, “bunker”, “panzerdivision”, “sitzkrieg”, “volkssturm”, “gestapo”, “nazi”. Translation loans are quite numerous among German borrowings: “Blood and iron” (Blut und Eisen); “iron rations” (Eiserne Ration); “mailed fist” (gepanzerte Faust); “superman” (Übermensch); “thing-in-itself” (Ding an sich); “place in the sun” (Platz an der Sonne); “song without words” (Lieder ohne Wörter); “home- sickness” (Heimweh); “time-spirit” (Zeitgeist); “masterpiece” (Meisterstück). 98% of German borrowings are nouns. Phonetic assimilation of German loan- words is impeded by their written character. The influence of the German language In the words stock of the English vocabulary there are many words adopted from the German language. But there are not so many German lexical units which were included in the English dictionary. The thing is that a lot of German words which relate to the sphere of science serve as a constitution from Latin and Greek root. Words denoting conceptions of social and political and philosophic character, and terminological stratum, which relates to maritime case are treated as German adopted words. First adoptions were made in the sixteenth century. In this period words related to commerce, military science, names of plants and the rest were adopted. By the term October Revolution is meant the revolution against the Czarist government which was in November 1917. For example: «Lance-knight»-»ландскнехт» «Kreutzer»-»крейцер (название монеты)» «Groschen»-»гроши» «Staff»-»штаб» Very serious influence of German language is seen in the sphere of mineralogy: «Bismuth»-«висмут» «Cobalt»-»кобальт» «Zink»-«цинк» «Wolfram»-»вольфрам» «Nickel»-«никель» «Iceberq»-«айсберг». In XIX century appeared many new adopted words especially in the sphere of the humanities, philology, social life and politics, chemistry and physics, philosophy and art, words denoting food and household goods. For example: «Umlaut»-«умляут» «Ablaut»-«абляут» «Marzipan»-«марципан» «Kohlrabi»-«кольраби (название капусты)» «Leitmotiv»-«лейтмотив» «Kapellmeister»-«капельмейстер» «Halt»-»остановка, стой!» «Drillinq»-«тренировка» «Plunder»-«грабеж» «Field-marshal»-»фельдмаршал» «Marzipan»-«марципан» «Kohlrabi»-«кольраби» «Vermuth»-»вермут» «Kapellmeister»-»дирижер, капельмейстер» «Poodle»-«пудель» Many adopted words are connected with the World War II. There are words denoting notions and realias appeared in the time of Hitlerite’s regime. Here are several of them: «Black Shirt»-«schwarhemd» «Brown Shirt»-»braunhemd» «Stormtroopers»- «stumabteilung» «Nazi»-»нацист, фашист» And some other loan words that came into the English language: «Masterpiece»-from German «meisterstuck»-»шедевр» «Wonder child»-from German «wunderkind»-»вундеркинд» The impact of the Dutch language. In the word stock of the English vocabulary compact relations between England and Netherlands were reflected in the sphere of commerce, military and economics. Holland is one of the closest countries to England (in the territorial meaning). All trades of England up to XVI century were limited to river basins of Baltic and Northern Seas. Between English ports and ports of Ganzei union the brisk connection was supported. The plenty of words concerning shipbuilding, navigation, trade was borrowed during this period from the Dutch language. For example: «Buoy»-from Dutch «boei»-»буй» «Cruise»-from Dutch «kruis»-»крейсирование» «Dock»- from Dutch «docke»-»док» «Skipper»- from Dutch «schipper»-»шкипер» «Sloop»- from Dutch «sloep»-»шлюп» «Yacht»- from Dutch «jacht»-»яхта» «Bulwark»- from Dutch «bulwark»-»бастион» «Rover»- from Dutch «rover»-»пират, морской разбойник» «Deck»-from Dutch «deck»-»палуба» «Ledger»- from Dutch «ledger»-»бухгалтерская книга» Through the history of England we may see that in XIII-XIV centuries government of England interested the Flemish weavers in giving them opportunity to settle in community and in organizing weaving. Such relations have also lest a trace in the English vocabulary. For example: «Rock»- from Dutch «rocke»-»прялка» «Spool»- from Dutch «spoel»-»шпулька» «Nap»-»ворс на сукне» Development of painting in Holland in XVII century was reflected in the words stock of the English vocabulary. For example: «Easel»- from Dutch «ezel»-«мольберт» «To etch»- from Dutch «etsen»-«гравировать» «Landscape»- from Dutch «landschap»-«ландшафт» Several words came into the English language from Boer language (the language of Holland peasants). For example: «Kopje»- from Dutch «kopje»-«холмик» «Kraal»- from Dutch «kraal»-»туземный поселок» «Veldt»- from Dutch «veldt»-»южно-африканская степь» «To trek»- from Dutch «trek ken»-»тащить» In all the mentioned above information it is seen that the influence of Dutch language to the English language is restricted by some special features and notions which proves that there was a connection between Holland and England. During much of the 1600s, the Netherlands was a world power, especially at sea, and this influence contributed to the English language in the form of borrowings from Dutch into English of various nautically and aquatically themed words. Here’s a list of many of these terms (a few of which were adopted from, or may derive from cognates in, other languages) and their definitions and their Dutch origins. 1. avast (“stop”): from hou vast, meaning “hold fast” 2. bow (“front of a ship”): from boeg (or from Old German or Old Norse) 3. brackish (“salty”): from brac (or a Low German cognate), meaning “salty” 4. buoy (“marker” or, as a verb, “mark with a buoy” or “keep afloat”): from buoy, ultimately from the Latin word boia, meaning “shackle” 5. caboose (“the last car on a freight train, used for the accommodation for the train’s crew”): from kabuis or kombuis, meaning “galley,” or “ship’s kitchen” 6. commodore (“senior captain” or “naval officer above a captain in rank”): probably from kommandeur, ultimately from the Old French word comandeor, meaning “commander” 7. cruiser (“warship larger than a destroyer but smaller than a battleship,” or “pleasure motorboat”): from kruisen (related to kruis, meaning “cross”), meaning “sail across or go through” 8. deck (“any of various floors of a ship”): from dek, meaning “covering” 9. dock (“mooring structure for vessels” or, as a verb “tie up at a dock”): from docke, meaning “pier” 10. dredge (“riverbed or seabed scoop” or, as a verb, “drag” or “scoop”): perhaps based on dregghe, meaning “dragnet” 11. freebooter (“pirate”): from vrijbuiter, meaning “robber”; the second half of the word is related to booty, also derived from Dutch 12. freight (“shipped goods” or, as a verb, “ship goods”): from a word variously spelled fraght, vracht, and vrecht and meaning “water transport”; the Dutch word is also the source of fraught, meaning “heavy” or “weighed down” 13. filibuster (“obstructive act” or, as a verb, “obstruct”): from vrijbuiter by way of the Spanish word filibuster (see freebooter above), which in turn comes from the French word flibustier 14. hoist (“lift” as a noun or a verb): from hijsen 15. jib (“spar”): from gijben, meaning “boom” 16. keel (“spine or structure projecting from a hull”): from kiel 17. keelhaul (“punish by dragging over the keel”): from kielhalen, meaning “keel hauling” 18. kill (“riverbed”): from kil 19. maelstrom (“whirlpool” or, by extension, “confused situation”): from maalstroom, meaning “grinding current” or “strong current” (the second element of the word is cognate with stream); possibly based on an Old Norse word 20. morass (“boggy or muddy ground” or, by extension, “complicated or confused situation”): from marasch, meaning “swamp,” partly based on the Old French word marais, meaning “marsh” 21. plug (“stopper” or, as a verb, “stop (a hole)”): from plugge, meaning “stopper” 22. school (“large group of fish,” unrelated to the term for an educational institution): from schole 23. scow (“small, wide sailboat” or “flat-bottomed boat”): from schouw 24. shoal (“large group of fish”; unrelated to the same word meaning “area of shallow water”): cognate with schole 25. skipper (“captain of a ship”): from schipper, meaning “someone who ships” 26. sloop (“sailboat,” either a small modern boat or a specific type of warship): from sloep, either ultimately from slupen, meaning “to glide,” or from the Old French term chalupe 27. smack (“small sailboat”): possibly from smak, meaning “sailboat,” perhaps from the sound made by flapping sails 28. smuggler (“illegal trader”): smokkelen or the Low German word smukkelen, meaning “transport (goods) illegally”) 29. stockfish (“cod or similar fish prepared by drying”): from stokvis, meaning “stick fish” 30. yacht (“small, light pirate-hunting naval vessel” or “pleasure motorboat or sailboat”): from jacht, meaning “hunt” and short for jachtschip Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! There are quite a number of literal translation-loans from German in the domain of philosophy and scientific socialism, e. g. surplus value, world-outlook, thing-in- itself,class struggle, dictatorship of the proletariat ,world market, Numerous scientific terms, created by German scientists, entered the English language, such as: homeopathy, tuberculin, allopathy, teleology. In the science the influence of the German nomenclature of mineralogy and geology is the oldest and has remained constant. Of the other sciences borrowings from biology and philosophy played an important part in the 19th century. While in the 20th century psychology provides the majority of the loan-words. The influence of German on the ordinary vocabulary of English is not very considerable. From Holland have come many nautical words. The oldest Dutch nautical words in English are: reef, yacht, deck, hoy. From the Dutch of South Africa have come: commandeer, springbok, baobab. The whole number of Dutch words in English is uncertain, approximately about 200 words. From the Hungarian have come a few words, such as: coach, tokay. From the Polish the following words were borrowed directly and indirectly: mazurka, polack, polka. There are also words adopted from India. As examples of early Indian borrowings may be mentioned: opal, orange, punch, sapphire, sugar, jute, aniline, chintz, candy, calico. Recent borrowings from India are not numerous. Most of them refer to features of life distinctively Indian, such as: bangle, rupee, pugree, puggery, pundit. Among words of more general signification are: bungalow, cot, khaki, shampoo, loot. A small number of words were adopted either directly or indirectly from China and Japan. Among the few borrowings from China are the names for various sorts of tea: souchong, bohea, congou, pekoe, hyson and the name tea itself. From Japan have come: geisha, kimono, mikado, samurai. Most of these loanwords are aliens. A number of words have come from Semitic languages — Hebrew and Arabic. The whole number of Hebrew words in English is supposed to be about 80, from Arabic — about 170. Most Arabic words came into English through other European languages and belong to a stock of loan-words common to many of the languages of Europe. It will also be remembered that among borrowed words that reached Europe through Arabic channels there are a number of Greek derivatives, such as: albatros, elexir, typhoon. Among Arabic words borrowed directly may be mentioned: emir, harem, khalif, mohair, simoom, sofa. The number of Turkish borrowings is small. They refer almost exclusively to features of life distinctively Turkish, e. g. aga (agha), bey, caftan. Among Turkish words of more universal application found not only in English but in other languages are: coffee, horde, uhlan. 5. Russian Borrowings in the English Vocabulary Russian borrowings in the English vocabulary may be subdivided into two principal groups of words borrowed: a. before the October Revolution (1917); b. after the October Revolution.(1917). Among early borrowings in the English vocabulary we find such words, as: rouble, verst (versta, verste), tsar, tsarina, tsarevich, voivode, sable, altine, kibitka, borzoi, pood (pode), quass (quasse, kvas), taiga, steppe, borshch, beluga, sterlet, valenok (valenki), morse, troika, balalaika, vodka, fortochka, copeck, droshky, samovar, izba and others. Then come numerous Russian borrowings which penetrated into the English vocabulary in the 19th century through translations of the great Russian writers. These words reflect the political and every-day life of Russia at that time, e. g. Decembrists, intelligentzia, Narodnik, duma, ukase, uyezd, zemstvo, volost, cossack, moujik (muzhik), otrezki, nihilist and still others. After the October Revolution the Russian language has been supplemented by a multitude of new words and expressions which arose with the emergence of the new state, new society, morals and finally in connection with the growth of technique and science. The sense of a number of words and expressions has changed, they have acquired a new meaning. The newly coined Russian words denote new Socialist form of labour, new attitude to labour which in our country has become a matter of valour, glory and heroism. The adoption of these words by various languages all over the globe continues to grow. The following words will afford graphic examples of sovietisms in the vocabulary of Modern English: Leninism, Leninist, Bolshevik, Bolshevism, Bolshevist, Soviet, the USSR, kolkhoz, udarnik, collectivization, Komsomol, sovkhoz, piati-letka, sputnik, lunnik, spaceship, lunokhod. Among Russian borrowings in English we also find such translation-loans, as: collective farm, collective farmer, five year plan, Soviet power, State farm, party nucleus, dictatorship of the proletariat, local Soviet, Council of People's Commissars, New Economic Policy (NEP), labour day, shock work, shock worker, shock brigade, self-criticism, Young Communist League, Prepared for Labour and Defence badge, Hero of Socialist Labour, Hero of the Soviet Union, Countries of People's Democracy, People's Democracies, Socialist realism, Land of Soviets, people's actor, Hero city, wall newspaper, mother-heroine, wedding palace. Besides aliens, denizens and translation-loans we may also trace semantic borrowings from the Russian language. Sense-shift leaves no doubt in such English words, for instance, as: pioneer, Socialist emulation, Socialist competition, shockwork, ideology, which have acquired a new meaning under the influence of the corresponding Russian names. Quite a number of special scientific terms have also been borrowed from Russian, e. g. chernozem, solonchak, liman, vernalization. Numerous proper names have become well known, such as: The Kremlin, «The Pravda», «The Izvestia», etc. There are also English derivatives from Russian loanwords, such as: five-year planning, collective farming and still others. The Russian loan-word sputnik has international currency. It is of interest to observe at this point that the stem sput and the suffix -nik have already become derivational morphemes in English. There are such newly coined English words, for instance, as sputpup (sputnik + pup) - собака, которая летала на спутнике; picnik (picture + sputnik) — изображение спутника; beatnik (beat + sputnik) + битник. The function of the suffix -nik serves to impart to the derivative the meaning of a thing or doer of the action. 2. Neologisms The vocabulary of a language, as we have already said, is in a state of almost continuous change. E Neologisms are newly coined words or words that have acquired a new meaning because of social-economic, political, and cultural changes in human society. The names of new referents, things and ideas denoted by the words, constantly enter the language. The rapid advances which are being made in -scientific knowledge, the extension of sciences and arts to many new purposes and objects create a continual demand for the formation of new words to express new ideas, new agencies and new wants. And language, directly reflecting these needs, enriches its vocabulary and perfects its system of grammar. In epochs of social upheaval neologisms come into the language in large numbers. After the Great October Socialist Revolution the Russian language, for instance, has been supplemented by a considerable number of new words and expressions which arose along with the new Socialist production, with the emergence of the new State, of the new Socialist culture, with the growth of technique and science. Quite a number of such Russian words are now international in character. The vocabulary of a language can be supplemented by foreign borrowings, by derivation and composition (as in black-out — затмение) and by sense-shift. Sometimes new roots are created, but root-creation is comparatively rare. In Modern English it may be represented by such words, for instance, as kodak, nylon, gas. A new invention or discovery naturally calls for a new word, as does progress in any field of thought or work. New ideas and new habits of life develop and demand linguistic expression. In the 20th century modern science and technique have brought such words, as: antenna, broadcast, electron, listen-in, loud-speaker, sound pictures, static, thermosbottle, television, some military terms: camouflage, dreadnought, hangar, and so forth. A number of words have resulted from the popularity of aviation, such as: aircraft, aircraftman, air-liner, airman, aeroplane, biplane, dirigible, monoplane, hydroplane, etc. In modern times, especially the last hundred years, so many have been the inventions and so vast the increase of man s knowledge of the things about him that hundreds of new words have had to be coined and many old ones given a new meaning. These are all so interesting especially as some of them have been made during our life- time that they make a subject for study in themselves. Business originally meant «anxiety», «care», «solicitude», hence the modern meaning of the word. In the later half of the 18th century the word railway, for instance, existed to signify the wooden rails that were laid down for the trucks to run over in the coalpits. When the steam-engine came, the iron road over which it made its snorting and fiery way took the name to itself and has kept it ever since. We continually find in studying the history of a language that a large number of words despite great changes of sense retain the fundamental meaning of the original, but in many cases this is quite lost. As life marches, on language must march with it, taking new words to express new ideas and leaving behind such words as belong to thoughts and facts that have had their day. Word history presents not only special philological interest. Dealing with the origin of words and the development of their meaning it relates things and facts in which it may never have occurred to you to find or even imagine a connection; it illuminates the history of physical progress, mental improvement, spiritual values. Neologisms originate in various ways, usually, of course, in answer to some felt need or to the popular acceptance of some newly uncovered phrase that seems to be just right for the placet Among neologisms in the vocabulary of Modern English we find quite a number of Russian borrowings. The newly coined loan-words denoted progressive and revolutionary ideas, new forms of labour, new social-economic relations associated with the revolution of 1917 in Russia. The number of such words borrowed by various languages from Russian are: Leninism, soviet, bolshevik,kolkhoz, komsomol, working day, self-criticism, sputnik 3. Archaisms (Gr. archaios — old-fashioned) . Language is never stationary. The vocabulary of a language is in a state of almost constant change. In process of time it changes by being supplemented with the new words which come into being with the advances in scientific knowledge, with the changes in the social system, with the development of science and culture. A certain number of obsolete words usually drop out of the vocabulary of a language. A far larger number of new words is added. Obsolete words pass out of use completely or remain in the language as elements performing purely historical descriptive functions. The disappearance of old occupations causes the disappearance of heir old names. Such terms either vanish out of life completely or remain in proverbs or pictorial language. Archaisms are often used for stylistic purposes to present a vivid picture of the time described. Names of obsolete occupations are often preserved as family names,e. g. Chandler — candle maker, Latimer (i. e. Latiner) — interpreter, Spicer — dealer in spices, Webster — weaver (with -ster the old feminine ending), Wright — worker (О. Е. wyrhta), etc. We may easily trace instances when a pecu iar phrase preserves some archaic words, e. g. Many a little makes a mickle (mickle — AS micel, my-cel — great, much). The verb to read in the old sense of interpret or guess (whence the ordinary meaning) survives in to read a riddle. Riddle itself goes back to the same verb. An old sense of favour (features, looks survives in hard-favoured— of hard, coarse features; ill-favoured—ill-looking, ugly; well-favoured — good-looking, etc. The preposition on was once common in the sense of because of. This meaning survives in such prepositional phrases, as: on purpose and on compulsion. The preposition with originally signified «against», but it has lost the meaning except in such verbs as: withstand, withdraw, withhold, etc. Here are some examples of the use of archaic words in journalism: albeit (short for all (hough it be that) — although; belike — probably, perhaps; forebears — ancestors; oft, oftti-mes, oftentimes — often; parlous — perilous; peradventure — probably, uncertainly; perchance — possibly, by chance; save— besides, except; to wit — namely; well nigh — almost, nearly; withal — with it, in addition, moreover. Archaic are the following compound adverbs: hereat — at this; hereof — of this, as a result of this; hereto — to this matter; thereas — at that place, after that; therefore — till then, up to that time; therefrom — from that; therein — in that place; thereof — of that or of it; thereon — out of that, from that source; thereto— to that or- it, in addition, to boot; thereupon — upon that; whereat — at which; wherein — in what, in respect; whereof — of which, of what, etc. Archaic are the following participles ending in -en: bounden, drunken, gotten, graven, knitten, molten, proven, rotten, shrunken, stricken, shorn, sodden, sunken, washen. The above given archaic participles are now chiefly used as verbal adjectives only and not as parts of tense-forms. Sometimes a word or a meaning has become obsolete except in few idioms, which, however, are still in common use. A great many obsolete words remain embedded in the language as parts of compounds. Thus, gar, an old word for spear, survives in garlic (O.E. gar and leac — a leek, plant, so called from the shape of the leaves) and garfish a long fish of the pike family, with a long spearlike snout. A nightmare is not a she-horse, but a terrifying or fantastically horrible dream personified in folklore as a female monster sitting upon and seeming to suffocate people in their sleep. Old English тага (incubus, an evil spirit) supposed to descend on sleeping persons, is quite distinct from mearch — mare, but the words were later confused, so that one even hears